Computer-Aided Simulation Method For Atomic-Resolution Scanning Seebeck Microscope (SSM) Images

ABSTRACT

A computer-aided simulation method for an atomic-resolution scanning Seebeck microscope (SSM) image is provided. In the computer-aided simulation method, a computer may calculate a local thermoelectric voltage for a position of a voltage probe, to acquire an SSM image corresponding to the position, using the following equation: 
     
       
         
           
             
               V 
                
               
                 ( 
                 r 
                 ) 
               
             
             = 
             
               
                 V 
                 diff 
               
               + 
               
                 
                   
                     S 
                     coh 
                   
                    
                   
                     ( 
                     r 
                     ) 
                   
                 
                  
                 
                   ∫ 
                   
                     
                       
                         ∇ 
                         
                           T 
                            
                           
                             ( 
                             
                               r 
                               ; 
                               
                                 r 
                                 ′ 
                               
                             
                             ) 
                           
                         
                       
                       · 
                       
                         
                           
                             r 
                             ′ 
                           
                           - 
                           r 
                         
                         
                           
                              
                             
                               
                                 r 
                                 ′ 
                               
                               - 
                               r 
                             
                              
                           
                           3 
                         
                       
                     
                      
                     
                       
                          
                         3 
                       
                        
                       
                         r 
                         ′ 
                       
                     
                   
                 
               
             
           
         
       
     
     in which V(r) denotes the local thermoelectric voltage, V diff  denotes a thermoelectric voltage drop in a diffusive transport region in a tip and a sample, S coh (r) denotes a position-dependent Seebeck coefficient, r denotes a distance measured from a point voltage probe, r′ denotes material internal coordinates, ∇T(r;r′) denotes a temperature gradient radially weighted by a factor of 1/r 2 , and 
     
       
         
           
             ∫ 
             
               
                 
                   ∇ 
                   
                     T 
                      
                     
                       ( 
                       
                         r 
                         ; 
                         
                           r 
                           ′ 
                         
                       
                       ) 
                     
                   
                 
                 · 
                 
                   
                     
                       r 
                       ′ 
                     
                     - 
                     r 
                   
                   
                     
                        
                       
                         
                           r 
                           ′ 
                         
                         - 
                         r 
                       
                        
                     
                     3 
                   
                 
               
                
               
                 
                    
                   3 
                 
                  
                 
                   r 
                   ′ 
                 
               
             
           
         
       
     
     denotes a volume integral of a temperature profile.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

The present application claims the benefit of Korean Patent ApplicationNo. 10-2013-0066020 and of Korean Patent Application No.10-2014-0055617, respectively filed on Jun. 10, 2013 and May 9, 2014, inthe Korean Intellectual Property Office, the disclosures of which arehereby incorporated herein by reference in their entireties.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to a computer-aided simulation method foran atomic-resolution scanning thermoelectric microscope.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

To observe a surface of a material in an atomic resolution, a scanningtunneling microscope (STM) technology disclosed in U.S. Pat. No.4,343,993 may be used. The STM technology may be used to display anatomic-resolution image representing a surface of a material, based on avacuum tunneling current localized by applying an external voltage to agap between the material and a probe. However, in the STM technology,since the external voltage needs to be applied, Fermi electrons may belikely to be disturbed by the external voltage, and a narrow region maybe scanned. Additionally, a sharp probe is required to generate alocalized current, however, a yield may not be high due to a difficultyof forming a sharp probe.

To avoid the above disadvantages of the STM technology, a scanningthermoelectric microscope may be used instead of an STM. However, sinceit is generally known that it is difficult to localize heat in space, itmay be difficult to actually implement the scanning thermoelectricmicroscope.

Recently, a technology of observing a surface of a material at an atomicresolution using a scanning thermoelectric microscope has been disclosedin “Thermoelectric imaging of structural disorder in epitaxial graphene”prepared by S. Cho, et al. and published in 2013 in arXiv: 1305.2845(http://arxiv.org/abs/1305.2845) and Nature Mater. 12, 913.

Accordingly, it is desired to acquire an atomic-resolution image from asurface of a material, using a scanning thermoelectric microscope thatis an actual apparatus, and to simulate a form of the surface using acomputer to determine an atomic structure corresponding to the acquiredatomic-resolution image.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

An aspect of the present invention provides a computer-aided simulationmethod for an atomic-resolution scanning Seebeck microscope (SSM) image,to provide a method of simulating a form of a surface of a materialcorresponding to an image acquired by an actual scanning thermoelectricmicroscope and of recognizing the form.

According to an aspect of the present invention, there is provided acomputer-aided simulation method for an atomic-resolution SSM image,wherein a computer calculates a local thermoelectric voltage V(r) for aposition of a voltage probe, to acquire an SSM image corresponding tothe position, using the following equation:

${V(r)} = {V_{diff} + {{S_{coh}(r)}{\int{{{\nabla{T\left( {r;r^{\prime}} \right)}} \cdot \frac{r^{\prime} - r}{{{r^{\prime} - r}}^{3}}}{^{3}r^{\prime}}}}}}$

In the equation, V_(diff) denotes a thermoelectric voltage drop in adiffusive transport region in a tip and a sample, S_(coh)(r) denotes aposition-dependent Seebeck coefficient, r denotes a distance measuredfrom a point voltage probe, r′ denotes material internal coordinates,∇T(r;r′) denotes a temperature gradient radially weighted by a factor of1/r², and

$\int{{{\nabla{T\left( {r;r^{\prime}} \right)}} \cdot \frac{r^{\prime} - r}{{{r^{\prime} - r}}^{3}}}{^{3}r^{\prime}}}$

denotes a volume integral of a temperature profile.

The volume integral

$\int{{{\nabla{T\left( {r;r^{\prime}} \right)}} \cdot \frac{r^{\prime} - r}{{{r^{\prime} - r}}^{3}}}{^{3}r^{\prime}}}$

may be defined by the following equation:

${\int{{{\nabla{T\left( {r;r^{\prime}} \right)}} \cdot \frac{r^{\prime} - r}{{{r^{\prime} - r}}^{3}}}d^{3}r^{\prime}}} \equiv {\Delta \; {T_{cob}(r)}}$

In the equation, ΔT_(coh)(r) denotes an effective temperature drop at aninterface between the tip and the sample.

The position-dependent Seebeck coefficient S_(coh)(r) may be calculatedfrom the Landauer formula by the following equation:

${S_{coh}(r)} = {{- \frac{1}{eT}}\frac{\int{{\tau^{el}\left( {E,r} \right)}\left( {E - E_{F}} \right)\left( {- \frac{\partial f}{\partial E}} \right){E}}}{\int{{\tau^{el}\left( {E,r} \right)}\left( {- \frac{\partial f}{\partial E}} \right){E}}}}$

In the equation, e denotes an electron charge, T denotes an absolutetemperature, τ^(el) denotes an electron transmission probability, E_(F)denotes a Fermi energy, and ƒ denotes a Fermi-Dirac distributionfunction at the absolute temperature T.

The position-dependent Seebeck coefficient S_(coh)(r) may be derived tothe following equation:

S _(coh)(r)=S ^(tip) +S ^(sample)(r)

In the equation, S^(tip) denotes a tip Seebeck coefficient, andS^(sample)(r) denotes a sample Seebeck coefficient of a material.

The sample Seebeck coefficient S^(sample)(r) may be defined by thefollowing equation:

${S^{sample}(r)} = {{- \frac{1}{eT}}\frac{\int{{N_{e}^{sample}\left( {E,r} \right)}\left( {E - E_{F}} \right)\left( {- \frac{f}{E}} \right){E}}}{\int{{N_{e}^{sample}\left( {E,r} \right)}\left( {- \frac{\partial f}{\partial E}} \right){E}}}}$

In the equation, e denotes an electron charge, T denotes an absolutetemperature, E_(F) denotes a Fermi energy, ƒ denotes a Fermi-Diracdistribution function at the absolute temperature T, and N_(e)^(sample)(E,r) denotes a local density of states (DOS) obtained fromfirst-principles calculations for a material surface.

The effective temperature drop ΔT_(coh)(r) may be calculated by theFollowing equation:

${\Delta \; {T_{coh}(r)}} = {\frac{\Delta \; Q\; 3h}{\pi^{2}k_{B}^{2}T}{\frac{1}{\tau^{p\; h}(r)}.}}$

In the equation, k_(B) denotes a Boltzmann constant, τ^(ph)(r) anddenotes a phonon transmission probability of a tip-sample junction.

The effective temperature drop ΔT_(coh)(r) may be deduced by thefollowing equation:

${\Delta \; {T_{coh}(r)}} = \frac{{V^{{ex}\; p}(r)} - V_{diff}}{S_{coh}^{theory}(r)}$

In the equation, V^(expt)(r) denotes an experimental thermoelectricvoltage measured in a defect-free region, and S_(coh) ^(theory)(r)denotes a theoretical Seebeck coefficient of a material.

The effective temperature drop ΔT_(coh)(r) may be deduced by a functionrepresented by the following equation:

ΔT _(coh)(r)=ƒ(E ^(vdw)(r))

In the equation, ƒ(E^(vdw)(r)) denotes a function including a linearfitting formula or an exponential function, and E^(vdw)(r) denotes a vander Waals (vdW) energy The function may be based on a correlationbetween the effective temperature drop ΔT_(coh)(r) and the vdW energyE^(vdw)(r).

Effect

According to embodiments of the present invention, a computer maysimulate an atomic-resolution image of a scanning Seebeck microscope(SSM) corresponding to a surface of a material based on a Seebeckeffect.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

These and/or other aspects, features, and advantages of the inventionwill become apparent and more readily appreciated from the followingdescription of exemplary embodiments, taken in conjunction with theaccompanying drawings of which:

FIG. 1 schematically illustrates an atomic resolution of a scanningthermoelectric microscope according to an embodiment;

FIGS. 2A through 2F illustrate an experimental thermoelectric voltageimage and a Seebeck coefficient image for a defect-free region ofn-doped free-standing graphene, line profiles, and a correlation betweenan effective temperature drop and van der Waals (vdW) energy accordingto an embodiment;

FIGS. 3A through 3D illustrate images of a thermoelectric voltage for apoint defect, a topographic image, and profiles according to anembodiment;

FIGS. 4A through 4F illustrate simulated images of Seebeck coefficientsand thermoelectric voltages near point defects in n-doped free-standinggraphene according to an embodiment;

FIGS. 5A through 5D illustrate a model and a density of states (DOS) ofpristine free-standing graphene, vdW energy, and a vdW topographyaccording to an embodiment;

FIGS. 6A through 6F illustrate locally-averaged Seebeck coefficients, acorrelation between vdW energy and an effective temperature drop, andthermoelectric voltages according to an embodiment;

FIGS. 7A through 7D illustrate a model and a DOS of defectivefree-standing graphene, vdW energy, and a vdW topography according to anembodiment;

FIGS. 8A through 8D illustrate a model and a DOS of defectivefree-standing graphene with a single substitutional nitrogen (N_(C)),vdW energy, and a vdW topography according to an embodiment;

FIGS. 9A through 9D illustrate a model and a DOS of defectivefree-standing graphene with a defect complex (V_(C)-O_(C)) of a carbonvacancy (V_(C)) and substitutional oxygen (O_(C)), vdW energy, and a vdWtopography according to an embodiment; and

FIGS. 10A through 10D illustrate a simulated thermoelectric voltageimage for a V_(C)-O_(C), a fast Fourier transform (FFT) imagecorresponding to the simulated thermoelectric voltage image, anexperimental thermoelectric image, and an FFT image corresponding to theexperimental thermoelectric image according to an embodiment.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

Reference will now be made in detail to exemplary embodiments of thepresent invention, examples of which are illustrated in the accompanyingdrawings, wherein like reference numerals refer to the like elementsthroughout. Exemplary embodiments are described below to explain thepresent invention by referring to the figures.

Hereinafter, in the present disclosure, a scanning Seebeck microscope(SSM) may refer to a scanning thermoelectric microscope based on aSeebeck effect. According to an embodiment, a computer-aided simulationmay be performed on a material surface, to search for a materialcorresponding to an image of the material surface acquired by the SSM.

A scanning tunneling microscope (STM) may use tunneling, and may be usedto acquire a direct wave function image based on a charge-transfer gapand a voltage bias. Unlike the STM, an SSM based on the Seebeck effectmay be used to acquire a differential wave function image based on aheat-transfer gap and a temperature bias.

Additionally, in the present disclosure, an SSM image may refer to animage acquired by the above-described SSM. Hereinafter, an operation ofsimulating an atomic-resolution image of a material surfacecorresponding to an SSM image, using a computer will be furtherdescribed.

Hereinafter, a simulation of an SSM image will be described based ongraphene, however, a material is not limited to graphene. Accordingly, asimulation method according to embodiments may be applicable to othermaterials having a predetermined atomic structure.

In the present disclosure, a Seebeck coefficient may include, forexample, a position-dependent Seebeck coefficient or a coherent Seebeckcoefficient S_(coh)(r), and a local Seebeck coefficient S(r) or S(r;r′).

Heat may be perceived to be diffusive and transported incoherently bycharge carriers (for example, electrons and holes) and latticevibrations (for example, phonons) in a material. Accordingly, it may bevery difficult to perform local imaging of a material and electronicstates of the material through heat transport. Recently, however, Cho etal. reported that a series of atomic wave function images are obtainedby performing local thermoelectric imaging on a surface of epitaxialgraphene using a heat-based scanning probe microscope. The above reportmay generate a question on how to measure an atomic variation in a unitcell in a heat transport experiment. To answer the question, fundamentalphysics of thermoelectricity or the Seebeck effect may need to bere-evaluated from typical length scales to atomic length scales, inaddition to elucidating an imaging mechanism of a scanningthermoelectric microscope.

The present disclosure may provide a theory of a scanning thermoelectricmicroscope with an atomic resolution based on mesoscopic electrons andheat transport characteristics. The theory, beginning with a macroscopicgeneral transport equation and an electrostatic equation, may showfeasibility and mechanisms of an atomic scale imaging technology withthermoelectric measurements. Computer simulations of a thermoelectricimage may be combined with experimental results, and may be effectivelyused to identify atomic scale defects in graphene.

FIG. 1 schematically illustrates an atomic resolution of a scanningthermoelectric microscope according to an embodiment.

As shown in FIG. 1, a probe 10 of a scanning thermoelectric microscopeat a first temperature T₁ may be in contact with graphene 20 at a secondtemperature T₂. Measurement may be performed through a modifiedultrahigh vacuum contact mode atomic force microscope (AFM). Forconvenience, in the present disclosure, graphene is described, however,a simulation method according to an embodiment of the present inventionmay not be interpreted to be limited to graphene. A temperature gradient∇T may be formed in the vicinity of a tip-sample contact area by adifference between the first temperature T₁ and the second temperatureT₂, and an effective temperature drop ΔT_(coh)(r) may be induced in aninterface between a tip and a sample. Accordingly, a thermoelectricvoltage showing a phase difference of 180° with an atomic corrugationz(r) may be accurately measured by a high-impedance voltmeter in anactual scanning thermoelectric microscope. A measured localthermoelectric voltage may be expressed as shown in Equation 1 below.

V(r)=V _(diff) S _(coh)(r)ΔT _(coh)(r)  [Equation 1]

In Equation 1, V_(diff) denotes a thermoelectric voltage drop in adiffusive transport region in both the tip and the sample, S_(coh)(r)and ΔT_(coh)(r) denote a position-dependent Seebeck coefficient and aneffective temperature drop at the interface between the tip and sample,respectively. Electrons and heat may be coherently transported. Acoherent thermoelectric voltage V(r), represented by Equation 1, maycorrespond to an atomic resolution observed in a scanning thermoelectricmicroscope, which will be described below.

When the temperature gradient ∇T exists in a macroscopicelectro-conductive system, electrons or charged particles may betransported based on an electrostatic field E and a driving force forparticle diffusion under the temperature gradient ∇T. An electriccurrent density J(r) at a local site may be expressed by a generaltransport equation J(r)=σ[E(r)−S(r)∇T(r)] in which σ denotes anelectrical conductivity, and S(r) denotes a local Seebeck coefficient orthermopower. For example, an ideal voltmeter may satisfy an open-circuitlimit, that is, J(r)=0 and accordingly, charged particles may experiencea balance between an electrostatic force and a thermopower force. Abuilt-in potential may be expressed as shown in Equation 2 below.

E(r)=S(r)∇T(r)  [Equation 2]

A temperature profile T(r) may be primarily determined by thermaltransport properties of a system, for example, thermal conductivities ofconstituent materials and interfacial thermal conductivity between thematerials. Equation 2 may be derived for macroscopic diffusive systems,however, there is no limitation thereto. Accordingly, Equation 2 mayalso be applied to microscopic systems. When an external electric fieldis not applied, E(r) may indicate only a built-in electric fieldresulting from a thermal diffusion-induced charge distributionq^(th)(r). A Gauss's law may be applied to the built-in electric fieldand a charge density, that is, ∇·E(r)=q^(th)(r). Accordingly, Equation 2may lead to Equation 3 shown below.

∇·(S(r)∇T(r))=q ^(th)(r)  [Equation 3]

From Equation 3, the thermal diffusion-induced charge distributionq^(th)(r) may be accurately traced back from information of the localSeebeck coefficient S(r) and temperature profile T(r).

When an AFM tip is assumed to be a point probe as shown in FIG. 1, alocal thermoelectric voltage may be equivalent to the “Hartree-type”electrostatic potential V(r)=∫q^(th)(r;r′)/|r′−r|d³r′ in which r denotesa position of a probe and V(r) denotes integration over r′ for theentire volume. Based on Equation 3, and ∇T having a value of “0” atinfinity, the local thermoelectric voltage may be expressed as shown inEquation 4 below.

$\begin{matrix}{{V(r)} = {\int{{S\left( {r;r^{\prime}} \right)}{{\nabla{T\left( {r;r^{\prime}} \right)}} \cdot \frac{r^{\prime} - r}{{{r^{\prime} - r}}^{3}}}{^{3}r^{\prime}}}}} & \left\lbrack {{Equation}\mspace{14mu} 4} \right\rbrack\end{matrix}$

The local thermoelectric voltage V(r) may be expressed in the form of avolume integral, not a line integral, of the local Seebeck coefficientS(r) convoluted by a radially weighted temperature gradient ∇T(r) by afactor of 1/r² in which r denotes a distance measured from a pointvoltage probe. Because Equation 4 is an exact expression that does notinvolve an approximation, Equation 4 may be generally applicable forother thermoelectric systems including non-contact STM setups.

The volume integral in Equation 4 may be split into a diffusivetransport region and a coherent transport region. In the diffusivetransport region, a Seebeck coefficient and a temperature profile may bedetermined only by material properties, for example, an electricalconductivity and a thermal conductivity. From a Mott formula, adiffusive Seebeck coefficient may be represented by

$S = {{- \frac{\left( {k_{B}\pi} \right)^{2}T}{3e}}\frac{\partial}{\partial E}\left( {\ln \left\lbrack {\sigma (E)} \right\rbrack} \right)_{E_{F}}}$

in which k_(B) denotes a Boltzmann constant, T denotes an absolutetemperature, e denotes an electron charge, σ(E) denotes anenergy-dependent electrical conductivity, and E_(F) denotes a Fermienergy. Because a temperature profile T(r) may mostly vary slowly, undercontrol of a phonon mean-free-path, an almost constant thermoelectricvoltage V_(diff) may be generated in the diffusive transport region.

In the coherent transport region at a tip-sample interface, transport ofelectrons and phonons across a junction may be accounted for by eachtransmission probability and electrical and thermal conductance quanta.A coherent Seebeck coefficient S_(coh)(r) may be dependent on a tipposition r that is independent of internal coordinates r′, and may beexpressed based on an electron transmission probability τ(E,r) of atip-sample junction as

${S_{coh}(r)} = {{- \frac{\left( {k_{B}\pi} \right)^{2}T}{3e}}\frac{\partial}{\partial E}\left( {\ln \left\lbrack {\tau \left( {E,r} \right)} \right\rbrack} \right)_{E_{F}}}$

from a Landauer formula.

A local coherent thermoelectric voltage may be expressed as shown InEquation 5 below.

$\begin{matrix}\begin{matrix}{{V_{coh}(r)} = {{S_{coh}(r)}{\int{{{\nabla{T\left( {r;r^{\prime}} \right)}} \cdot \frac{r^{\prime} - r}{{{r^{\prime} - r}}^{3}}}{^{3}r^{\prime}}}}}} \\{= {{S_{coh}(r)}\Delta \; {{T_{coh}(r)}.}}}\end{matrix} & \left\lbrack {{Equation}\mspace{14mu} 5} \right\rbrack\end{matrix}$

In Equation 5, a volume integral of a weighted temperature profile maybe set to an effective temperature drop ΔT_(coh)(r) that is sensitivelydependent on a local geometry and a near-probe temperature profile dueto 1/r². Physically, the effective temperature drop ΔT_(coh)(r) maycorrespond to an interfacial temperature drop that is known to exist ata thermal boundary between two different thin-film materials. Generally,an interfacial temperature drop at thin films may be determined based onvibrational spectra and interaction strength of involved materials.

For example, the effective temperature drop ΔT_(coh)(r) may be expressedas

${\Delta \; {T_{coh}(r)}} = {\frac{\Delta \; Q\; 3h}{\pi^{2}k_{B}^{2}T}\frac{1}{\tau^{p\; h}(r)}}$

from the Landauer formula, based on a phonon transmission probability ofthe tip-sample junction. The phonon transmission probability of thetip-sample junction may be represented by τ^(ph)(r).

Based on the diffusive thermoelectric voltage V_(diff) and the coherentthermoelectric voltage V_(coh)(r), a total local thermoelectric voltagemay be derived from Equation 1. Accordingly, how thermopower profilingworks for a p-n junction, and how local thermoelectric imaging worksseamlessly from micrometer to sub-angstrom scales may be explained.

The coherent Seebeck coefficient S_(coh)(r), for example, aposition-dependent Seebeck coefficient may be expressed as shown inEquation 6 below.

$\begin{matrix}{{S_{coh}(r)} = {{- \frac{1}{eT}}\frac{\int{{\tau^{el}\left( {E,r} \right)}\left( {E - E_{F}} \right)\left( {- \frac{\partial f}{\partial E}} \right){E}}}{\int{{\tau^{el}\left( {E,r} \right)}\left( {- \frac{\partial f}{\partial E}} \right){E}}}}} & \left\lbrack {{Equation}\mspace{14mu} 6} \right\rbrack\end{matrix}$

In a weak-coupling limit, the electron transmission probability τ(E,r)may be approximated as τ(E,r)∝N_(e) ^(tip)(E)N_(e) ^(sample)(E,r) inwhich N_(e)(E,r) denotes a local density of states (DOS).

From the Landauer formula, the coherent Seebeck coefficient S_(coh)(r)may be expressed as S_(coh)(r)=S^(tip)+S^(sample)(r). A sample Seebeckcoefficient S^(sample)(r) may be expressed as shown in Equation 7 below.

$\begin{matrix}{{S^{sample}(r)} = {{- \frac{1}{eT}}\frac{\int{{N_{e}^{sample}\left( {E,r} \right)}\left( {E - E_{F}} \right)\left( {- \frac{\partial f}{\partial E}} \right){E}}}{\int{{N_{e}^{sample}\left( {E,r} \right)}\left( {- \frac{\partial f}{\partial E}} \right){E}}}}} & \left\lbrack {{Equation}\mspace{14mu} 7} \right\rbrack\end{matrix}$

In Equation 7, ƒ denotes a Fermi-Dirac distribution function at anabsolute temperature T. For example, at 300 kelvin (K), (−∂ƒ/∂E) may actas an integration window of ˜0.1 electronvolt (eV) near the Fermi energyE_(F). The sample Seebeck coefficient S^(sample)(r) may be eitherpositive or negative depending on asymmetry or energy derivative of thelocal DOS N_(e) ^(sample)(E,r) at the Fermi energy E_(F).

Because the local DOS N_(e) ^(sample)(E,r) may be obtained fromfirst-principles calculations for a material surface, Equation 1 mayserve as a foundation of a thermoelectric image simulation when theeffective temperature drop ΔT_(coh)(r) is known at the tip-samplejunction. Generally, information of the effective temperature dropΔT_(coh)(r) may not be known either from an experiment or simulation.Instead, the effective temperature drop ΔT_(coh)(r) may be deduced byinverting Equation 1 with an experimental thermoelectric voltageV^(expt)(r) and a theoretical Seebeck coefficient S_(coh) ^(theory)(r),for example the sample Seebeck coefficient S^(sample)(r), as shown inFIGS. 2A through 2F.

FIGS. 2A through 2F illustrate an experimental thermoelectric voltageimage for a defect-free region, a Seebeck coefficient image, lineprofiles, and a correlation between an effective temperature dropΔT_(coh)(r) and van der Waals (vdW) energy E^(vdw)(r) according to anembodiment.

FIG. 2A illustrates an experimental thermoelectric voltage image for adefect-free region in bilayer graphene on Silicon carbide(0001)(SiC(0001)). In FIG. 2A, a pattern originated from 6√3×6√3R30° ofgraphene reconstructed by a SiC substrate may be observed.

FIG. 2B illustrates an enlarged area of the experimental thermoelectricvoltage image of FIG. 2A. Experimental thermoelectric voltages may besampled in a graphene unit cell, marked with a parallelogram.

FIG. 2C illustrates a computer-simulated Seebeck coefficient image ofn-doped free-standing graphene. In FIG. 2C, a center void and a carbonatom may be marked with “V” and “C,” respectively.

FIG. 2D illustrates line profiles of an experimental thermoelectricvoltage, a Seebeck coefficient, and vdW energy, along a line of V-C-C-Vin FIG. 2C.

FIG. 2E illustrates a correlation between a deduced effectivetemperature drop ΔT_(coh)(r) and the vdW energy E^(vdw)(r). Referring toFIGS. 8A through 8D, a locally averaged sample Seebeck coefficientS^(sample)(r) with a disk radius of 0.5 angstrom (Å) may be used todeduce the effective temperature drop ΔT_(coh)(r). For example, thecorrelation between the deduced effective temperature drop ΔT_(coh)(r)and the vdW energy E^(vdw)(r) may be represented byΔT_(coh)(r)=ƒ(E^(vdw)(r)). A function ƒ(E^(vdw)(r)) may include a linearfitting formula or an exponential function. In FIG. 2E, a linear fittingformula ΔT_(coh)(r)=αE^(vdw)(r)+β may be ΔT_(coh)(r)=118.05+1.6454E^(vdw)(r).

FIG. 2F illustrates a reconstructed image of a theoreticalthermoelectric voltage for n-doped free-standing graphene.

FIGS. 2A and 2B illustrate a measured thermoelectric voltage V^(expt)(r)for a defect-free region in bilayer graphene on SiC. FIG. 2C illustratesa theoretical Seebeck coefficient S^(sample)(r) calculated from Equation7 for the n-doped free-standing graphene. Because a diamond-coated AFMtip and a graphene sample may interact through vdW interaction, thesample Seebeck coefficient S^(sample)(r) may be evaluated at a vdWequilibrium height calculated with a Lennard-Jones potential forpristine graphene, as shown in FIGS. 5A through 5D. The experimentalthermoelectric image and theoretical thermopower images in FIGS. 2B and2C may show a reasonable degree of correspondence in a pattern. Inparticular, a center void of carbon hexagon may exhibit more negativesignals in both experimental and theoretical results than carbon atomsites. Accordingly, an SSM is characteristically different from an STMthat picks up more current at charge-abundant atomic sites. However, itmay be found from line profiling in FIG. 2D that the sample Seebeckcoefficient S^(sample)(r) alone may not reproduce an atomic corrugationobserved in the thermoelectric voltage V^(expt)(r).

To identify a role of a temperature at a length scale of coherenttransport, Equation 1 may be inverted, and the effective temperaturedrop ΔT_(coh)(r) may be deduced. An almost linear correlation betweenthe deduced effective temperature drop ΔT_(coh)(r) and the vdW energyE^(vdw)(r) may be shown in FIG. 2E. The above linear correlation mayexist because the effective temperature drop ΔT_(coh)(r) may sensitivelydepend on inter-atomic thermal coupling at the tip-sample interface. Inan example of weak thermal coupling on a carbon atom site, a largeinterfacial temperature drop may be expected. In an example of strongthermal coupling on a central void of carbon hexagon, a smallinterfacial temperature drop may be expected.

As a result, the deduced effective temperature drop ΔT_(coh)(r) mayexhibit an atomic variation at a sub-angstrom scale from a carbon atomsite to a hexagonal void. Therefore, the atomic resolution in the localthermoelectric voltage may be originated from an atomic variation incoherent electron transport via a Seebeck coefficient, and an atomicvariation in coherent thermal transport via a thermal conductivity. FIG.2F illustrates a reconstructed image of a theoretical thermoelectricvoltage of pristine free-standing graphene, simulated with the sampleSeebeck coefficient S^(sample)(r) and the linear fitting formula of theeffective temperature drop ΔT_(coh)(r).

FIGS. 3A through 3D illustrate images of a thermoelectric voltage for apoint defect, a topographic image, and profiles according to anembodiment.

FIG. 3A illustrates a large-area scanning image of a thermoelectricvoltage for a point defect in bilayer graphene on SiC.

FIG. 3B illustrates a small-area scanning image of a thermoelectricvoltage in a rotated view for the point defect in FIG. 3A. FIG. 3Cillustrates a topographic image. The small-area scanning image of thethermoelectric voltage, and the topographic image may be simultaneouslyobtained.

FIG. 3D illustrates height profiles along a dashed line 1 and a boldline 2 of FIG. 3C. In FIG. 3D, comparing the dashed line 1 to the boldline 2, a single carbon atom site may be clearly defective along thedashed line 1.

Based on a linear correlation between the effective temperature dropΔT_(coh)(r) and the vdW energy E^(vdw)(r) atomic scale defects on asurface of graphene may be identified by comparing experimentalthermoelectric images to simulated thermoelectric voltage images. FIGS.3A and 3B show thermoelectric images of the point defect in bilayergraphene on SiC. A topographic analysis in FIGS. 3C and 3D may be usedto infer that the point defect in an experiment is associated with asingle carbon atom site.

FIGS. 4A through 4F illustrate simulated images of Seebeck coefficientsand thermoelectric voltages near point defects in n-doped free-standinggraphene according to an embodiment.

FIGS. 4A and 4D illustrate a simulated image of a Seebeck coefficientand a simulated image of a thermoelectric voltage for a point defect ofa single carbon vacancy (V_(C)), respectively.

FIGS. 4B and 4E illustrate a simulated image of a Seebeck coefficientand a simulated image of a thermoelectric voltage for a point defect ofsubstitutional nitrogen (N_(C)), respectively.

FIGS. 4C and 4F illustrate a simulated image of a Seebeck coefficientand a simulated image of a thermoelectric voltage for a point defect ofa defect complex (V_(C)-O_(C)) of a carbon vacancy and substitutionaloxygen, respectively.

In FIGS. 4A through 4F, atomic models may be shown in an inset.

To map a defect with an atomic model, a simulation may be performed onthermoelectric images of the V_(C) of FIGS. 4A and 4D, the N_(C) ofFIGS. 4B and 4E, and the V_(C)-O_(C) of FIGS. 4E and 4F in the n-dopedfree-standing graphene.

Because an electron of the V_(C) defect is located below the Fermienergy as shown in FIG. 7A through 7D, thermopower and thermoelectricimages of the V_(C) defect may have a bright region at a defect site, asopposed to an experimental image. On the other hand, because electronsof the N_(C) defect and the V_(C)-O_(C) defect are located above theFermi energy as shown in FIGS. 8A through 9D, thermopower andthermoelectric images of the N_(C) defect and the V_(C)-O_(C) defect mayhave a dark region, similarly to the experimental image. While the sizeof the dark region matches well with a size of the N_(C), a symmetry ofthe image may match well with an image of the V_(C)-O_(C). Atomic oxygenmay exist during sample growth and formation energy of the V_(C)-O_(C)may be sufficiently smaller than that of the V_(C) and accordingly, apoint defect in an experiment may be highly likely to be V_(C)-O_(C). Asimulation result including positive signals at V_(diff) of −0.6millivolt (mV) as shown in FIGS. 10A through 10D may reproduce severalconspicuous features, compared to an experimental image. Indeed,positive thermoelectric signals near a defect site in the experiment maybe associated with fine details of wave function overlap, atom-by-atomthermal coupling, a substrate effect, and diffusive shift V_(diff) thatmay be limitedly reflected in a current simulation scheme.

Comparing a heat-based scanning thermoelectric microscopy to an STM maybe important. Both the above techniques may share common features andfunctionalities as types of a scanning probe microscopy that providesreal-space images of wave functions. The STM may measure a tunnelingcurrent by applying a voltage drop across a vacuum-tunneling gap,whereas the heat-based scanning thermoelectric microscopy may measurevoltage differences by applying a temperature drop across an interfaceor across a heat-transfer gap. As a result, Fermi electrons may be onlyperturbed at the first order by a temperature bias in the heat-basedscanning thermoelectric microscopy, in contrast to the zero-orderperturbation by a voltage bias in the STM. Accordingly, a scanningthermoelectric microscopy may be useful to differentially analyze Fermielectronic states, even at room temperature, unlike the STM.

Hereinafter, the first-principles calculations will be furtherdescribed.

A mesoscopic Seebeck coefficient in Equation 7 may be obtained usingKohn-Sham wave functions and a local DOS from first principlesdensity-functional theory calculations of graphene. To calculate aground-state total-energy, VASP software may be used. A “12×12” graphenesupercell may be used for modeling the point defects, that is, theV_(C), N_(C), and V_(C)-O_(C) in graphene. For example, when a Diracpoint is set to 0 eV, Fermi energy E_(F) of 0.3 eV may be used tocalculate a local DOS. At an absolute temperature T of 315 K, the sampleSeebeck coefficient S^(sample)(r) in Equation 7 may be calculated.

Hereinafter, atomically-varying effective temperature drops will bedescribed.

To deduce an effective temperature drop ΔT_(coh)(r) from an experimentalthermoelectric voltage V^(expt)(r) and a theoretical Seebeck coefficientS^(sample)(r) by inverting Equation 1, a locally-averaged Seebeckcoefficient S^(sample)(r) within a specific disk radius R may be used.This is a method based on an effect of a finite size of a probe. InFIGS. 2E and 2F, a locally-averaged Seebeck coefficient S^(sample)(r)with a disk radius R of 0.5 Å may be used. For comparison, an originalSeebeck coefficient S^(sample)(r) and a locally-averaged Seebeckcoefficient S^(sample)(r) with a disk radius R of 0.3 Å may be used, asshown in FIGS. 6A through 6D.

The deduced effective temperature drop ΔT_(coh)(r) shows an almostlinear correlation or an almost exponential correlation with vdW energyE^(vdw)(r) that is calculated with Lennard-Jones 12-6 potentials, asshown in Equation 8 below.

$\begin{matrix}{{E^{vdW}\left( r_{i} \right)} = {\sum\limits_{j}\; {4{ɛ_{ij}\left\lbrack {\left( \frac{\sigma_{ij}}{{r_{i} - r_{j}}} \right)^{12} - \left( \frac{\sigma_{ij}}{{r_{i} - r_{j}}} \right)^{6}} \right\rbrack}}}} & \left\lbrack {{Equation}\mspace{14mu} 8} \right\rbrack\end{matrix}$

In Equation 8, r_(i) and r_(j) denote an atomic position of a tip, anatomic position of a sample, respectively, and ε and σ denoteLennard-Jones parameters. The tip may be modeled with a single carbonatom. Parameters ε_(ii) and σ_(ii) for a carbon atom, a nitrogen atom,and an oxygen atom may be listed as shown in Table 1, andε_(ij)=√(ε_(ii)ε_(jj)) and σ_(ij)=(σ_(ii)+σ_(jj))/2 may be used. The vdWenergy may be summed when an atom-atom distance is less than 15 Å, andan equilibrium height z(r) at minimum vdW energy may be used to evaluatea Seebeck coefficient S^(sample)(r).

TABLE 1 i ε_(ii) (meV) σ_(ii) (Å) C 4.20 3.37 N 7.41 3.25 O 9.12 2.96

Hereinafter, a statistically defined Fermi temperature will be furtherdescribed.

In-depth physics of the sample Seebeck coefficient S^(sample)(r)expressed by Equation 7 may be appreciated. The sample Seebeckcoefficient S^(sample)(r) may be expressed as shown in Equation 9 below.

$\begin{matrix}{{S^{sample}(r)} = {{- \frac{\left( {k_{B}\pi} \right)^{2}T}{3e}}\frac{\partial}{\partial E}\left( {\ln \left\lbrack {N_{e}^{sample}\left( {E,r} \right)} \right\rbrack} \right)_{E_{F}}}} & \left\lbrack {{Equation}\mspace{14mu} 9} \right\rbrack\end{matrix}$

When k_(B) ln [N_(e) ^(sample)(E,r)] is defined as an electronicentropy, energy derivative of an entropy may correspond to a reciprocaltemperature, expressed as shown in Equation 10 below.

$\begin{matrix}{\frac{1}{T_{F}(r)} = {\frac{\partial}{\partial E}\left( {k_{B}{\ln \left\lbrack {N_{e}^{sample}\left( {E,r} \right)} \right\rbrack}} \right)_{E_{F}}}} & \left\lbrack {{Equation}\mspace{14mu} 10} \right\rbrack\end{matrix}$

In Equation 10, T_(F)(r) denotes a position-dependentstatistically-defined Fermi temperature. A newly defined Fermitemperature T_(F)(r) of a real material may be a generalized version ofa “Fermi temperature” T_(F)=E_(F)/k_(B) that is only applicable to athree-dimensional (3D) free electron gas model. Additionally, a Seebeckcoefficient may be expressed as shown in Equation 11 below.

$\begin{matrix}{{S(r)} = {{- \frac{\pi^{2}}{3}}\frac{k_{B}}{e}\frac{T}{T_{F}(r)}}} & \left\lbrack {{Equation}\mspace{14mu} 11} \right\rbrack\end{matrix}$

Equation 11 may be interpreted as a ratio of a thermal equilibriumtemperature T and Fermi temperature T_(F) of a material. Astatistically-defined Fermi temperature may be a material property, nota real temperature, and may be either positive or negative depending ona slope of N_(e) ^(sample)(E,r). The Seebeck coefficient in Equation 11may be conceptually connected to other electron-related thermalcharacteristics of a material, for example, an electronic heat capacityc_(v)=π²N_(e)(E_(F))k_(B) ²T/3 and a quantum of thermal conductanceg₀=π²k_(B) ²T/3h. For example, the Seebeck coefficient and electronicheat capacity may be expressed as shown in Equation 12 below.

$\begin{matrix}{{S(r)} = {\frac{c_{v}}{e}\frac{\partial}{\partial E}\left( \frac{1}{N_{e}^{sample}\left( {E,r} \right)} \right)_{E_{F}}}} & \left\lbrack {{Equation}\mspace{14mu} 12} \right\rbrack\end{matrix}$

FIGS. 5A through 5D illustrate a model and a DOS of pristinefree-standing graphene, vdW energy, and a vdW topography according to anembodiment.

FIG. 5A illustrates a ball-and-stick model of the pristine free-standinggraphene.

FIG. 5B illustrates the DOS of the pristine free-standing graphene. InFIG. 5B, zero energy may indicate a charge-neutrality point or a Diracpoint that is denoted by a bold dashed line. A fine dashed line may marka Fermi energy of 0.3 eV used for a thermoelectric simulation of FIGS.4A through 4F.

FIG. 5C illustrates a computer-simulated image of vdW energy E^(vdw)(r).

FIG. 5D illustrates a computer-simulated image of vdW topography z(r) atminimum energy.

FIGS. 6A through 6F illustrate locally-averaged Seebeck coefficients, acorrelation between vdW energy and an effective temperature drop, andthermoelectric voltages according to an embodiment.

FIG. 6A illustrates a computer-simulated image of a locally-averagedSeebeck coefficient within a disk radius R of 0 Å.

FIG. 6B illustrates a computer-simulated image of a locally-averagedSeebeck coefficient within a disk radius R of 0.3 Å.

FIG. 6C illustrates a correlation between vdW energy and an effectivetemperature drop deduced with the disk radius R of 0 Å.

FIG. 6D illustrates a correlation between vdW energy and an effectivetemperature drop deduced with the disk radius R of 0.3 Å.

FIG. 6E illustrates a reconstructed image of a thermoelectric voltagefor the disk radius R of 0 Å.

FIG. 6F illustrates a reconstructed image of a thermoelectric voltagefor the disk radius R of 0.3 Å.

FIGS. 7A through 7D illustrate a model and a DOS of defectivefree-standing graphene, vdW energy, and a vdW topography according to anembodiment.

FIG. 7A illustrates a ball-and-stick model of defective free-standinggraphene with a single V_(C).

FIG. 7B illustrates a DOS of defective free-standing graphene with asingle V_(C), that is, a local DOS of dangling-bonded carbon C₃. In FIG.7B, zero energy may indicate an original Dirac point, a bold dashed linemay indicate original Fermi energy of defective graphene, and a finedashed line may indicate the elevated Fermi energy of 0.3 eV used for athermoelectric simulation of FIGS. 4A and 4D.

FIG. 7C illustrates a computer-simulated image of vdW energy E^(vdw)(r).

FIG. 7D illustrates a computer-simulated image of a vdW topography z(r)at minimum energy.

FIGS. 8A through 8D illustrate a model and a DOS of defectivefree-standing graphene with a single N_(C), vdW energy, and a vdWtopography according to an embodiment.

FIG. 8A illustrates a ball-and-stick model of defective free-standinggraphene with a single N_(C).

FIG. 8B illustrates a DOS of defective free-standing graphene with asingle N_(C), marked with a medium-thick line. In FIG. 8B, a local DOSfor a nitrogen atom and a local DOS of three neighboring carbon atomsmay be displayed. In FIG. 8B, Zero energy may indicate an original Diracpoint, a bold dashed line may indicate original Fermi energy ofdefective graphene, and a fine dashed line may indicate Fermi energy of0.3 eV used for a thermoelectric simulation of FIGS. 4B and 4E.

FIG. 8C illustrates a computer-simulated image of vdW energy E^(vdw)(r).

FIG. 8D illustrates a computer-simulated image of a vdW topography z(r)at minimum energy.

FIGS. 9A through 9D illustrate a model and a DOS of defectivefree-standing graphene with a V_(C)-O_(C), vdW energy, and a vdWtopography according to an embodiment.

FIG. 9A illustrates a ball-and-stick model of the defectivefree-standing graphene with the V_(C)-O_(C). In FIG. 9A, an oxygen atommay be marked with bold lines.

FIG. 9B illustrates a DOS of the defective free-standing graphene withthe V_(C)-O_(C). FIG. 9B may show a local DOS for atoms around avacancy. In FIG. 9B, zero energy may indicate an original Dirac point, abold dashed line may indicate original Fermi energy of defectivegraphene, and a fine dashed line may indicate Fermi energy of 0.3 eVused for a thermoelectric simulation of FIGS. 4C and 4F.

FIG. 9C illustrates a computer-simulated image of vdW energy E^(vdw)(r).

FIG. 9D illustrates a computer-simulated image of a vdW topography z(r)at minimum energy.

FIGS. 10A through 10D illustrate a simulated thermoelectric voltageimage for a V_(C)-O_(C), a fast Fourier transform (FFT) imagecorresponding to the simulated thermoelectric voltage image, anexperimental thermoelectric image, and an FFT image corresponding to theexperimental thermoelectric image according to an embodiment.

FIG. 10A illustrates a computer-simulated image of a thermoelectricvoltage for the V_(C)-O_(C) at V_(diff) of −0.6 mV.

FIG. 10B illustrates an FFT image corresponding to thecomputer-simulated image of FIG. 10A. In FIG. 10B, an arrow A maycorrespond to a reciprocal lattice, and an arrow B may be caused byintervalley scattering of a Fermi wave vector k_(F).

FIG. 10C illustrates an experimental thermoelectric image that maycorrespond to the large-area scanning image of the thermoelectricvoltage of FIG. 3A.

FIG. 10D illustrates an FFT image corresponding to the experimentalthermoelectric image of FIG. 100. In FIG. 10D, an arrow A may correspondto a reciprocal lattice, and an arrow B may be caused by intervalleyscattering of a Fermi wave vector k_(F). Additionally, an arrow C mayrepresent a pattern originated from 6√3×6√3R30° reconstruction of asurface of SiC(0001).

Although a few exemplary embodiments of the present invention have beenshown and described, the present invention is not limited to thedescribed exemplary embodiments. Instead, it would be appreciated bythose skilled in the art that changes may be made to these exemplaryembodiments without departing from the principles and spirit of theinvention, the scope of which is defined by the claims and theirequivalents.

What is claimed is:
 1. A computer-aided simulation method for anatomic-resolution scanning Seebeck microscope (SSM) image, wherein acomputer calculates a local thermoelectric voltage for a position of avoltage probe in a material surface, to acquire the SSM imagecorresponding to the position, using the following equation:${V(r)} = {V_{diff} + {{S_{coh}(r)}{\int{{{\nabla{T\left( {r;r^{\prime \;}} \right)}} \cdot \frac{r^{\prime} - r}{{{r^{\prime} - r}}^{3}}}{^{3}r^{\prime}}}}}}$in which V(r) denotes the local thermoelectric voltage, V_(diff) denotesa thermoelectric voltage drop in a diffusive transport region in a tipand a sample, S_(coh)(r) denotes a position-dependent Seebeckcoefficient, r denotes a distance measured from a point voltage probe,r′ denotes material internal coordinates, ∇T(r;r′) denotes a temperaturegradient radially weighted by a factor of 1/r², and$\int{{{\nabla{T\left( {r;r^{\prime}} \right)}} \cdot \frac{r^{\prime} - r}{{{r^{\prime} - r}}^{3}}}{^{3}r^{\prime}}}$denotes a volume integral of a temperature profile.
 2. Thecomputer-aided simulation method of claim 1, wherein the volume integral$\int{{{\nabla{T\left( {r;r^{\prime}} \right)}} \cdot \frac{r^{\prime} - r}{{r^{\prime} - r}}}{^{3}r^{\prime}}}$is defined by the following equation:${\int{{{\nabla{T\left( {r;r^{\prime}} \right)}} \cdot \frac{r^{\prime} - r}{{{r^{\prime} - r}}^{3}}}{^{3}r^{\prime}}}} = {\Delta \; {T_{coh}(r)}}$in which ΔT_(coh)(r) denotes an effective temperature drop at aninterface between the tip and the sample.
 3. The computer-aidedsimulation method of claim 1, wherein the position-dependent Seebeckcoefficient S_(coh)(r) is calculated by the following equation:${S_{coh}(r)} = {{- \frac{1}{eT}}\; \frac{\int{{\tau^{el}\left( {E,r} \right)}\left( {E - E_{F}} \right)\left( {- \frac{\partial f}{\partial E}} \right){E}}}{\int{{\tau^{el}\left( {E,r} \right)}\left( {- \frac{\partial f}{\partial E}} \right){E}}}}$in which e denotes an electron charge, T denotes an absolutetemperature, τ^(el) denotes an electron transmission probability, E_(F)denotes a Fermi energy, and ƒ denotes a Fermi-Dirac distributionfunction at the absolute temperature T.
 4. The computer-aided simulationmethod of claim 1, wherein the position-dependent Seebeck coefficientS_(coh)(r) is derived from the Landauer formula to the followingequation:S _(coh)(r)=S ^(tip) +S ^(sample)(r) in which denotes a S^(tip) Seebeckcoefficient, and S^(sample)(r) denotes a sample Seebeck coefficient of amaterial.
 5. The computer-aided simulation method of claim 4, whereinthe sample Seebeck coefficient S^(sample)(r) defined by the followingequation:${S^{sample}(r)} = {{- \frac{1}{eT}}\frac{\int{{N_{e}^{sample}\left( {E,r} \right)}\left( {E - E_{F}} \right)\left( {- \frac{\partial f}{\partial E}} \right){E}}}{\int{{N_{e}^{sample}\left( {E,r} \right)}\left( {- \frac{\partial f}{\partial E}} \right){E}}}}$in which e denotes an electron charge, T denotes an absolutetemperature, E_(F) denotes a Fermi energy, ƒ denotes a Fermi-Diracdistribution function at the absolute temperature T, and N_(e)^(sample)(E,r) denotes a local density of states (DOS) obtained fromfirst-principles calculations for a material surface.
 6. Thecomputer-aided simulation method of claim 2, wherein the effectivetemperature drop ΔT_(coh)(r) is calculated by the following equation:${\Delta \; {T_{coh}(r)}} = {\frac{\Delta \; Q\mspace{11mu} 3h}{\pi^{2}k_{B}^{2}T}\frac{1}{\tau^{ph}(r)}}$in which k_(B) denotes a Boltzmann constant, and τ^(ph)(r) denotes aphonon transmission probability of a tip-sample junction.
 7. Thecomputer-aided simulation method of claim 2, wherein the effectivetemperature drop ΔT_(coh)(r) is deduced by the following equation:${\Delta \; {T_{coh}(r)}} = \frac{{V^{\exp}(r)} - V_{diff}}{S_{coh}^{theory}(r)}$in which V^(expt)(r) denotes an experimental thermoelectric voltagemeasured in a defect-free region, and S_(coh) ^(theory)(r) denotes atheoretical Seebeck coefficient of a material.
 8. The computer-aidedsimulation method of claim 2, wherein the effective temperature dropΔT_(coh)(r) is deduced by a function represented by the followingequation:ΔT _(coh)(r)=ƒ(E ^(vdw)(r)) in which ƒ(E^(vdw)(r)) denotes a functioncomprising a linear fitting formula or an exponential function, andE^(vdw)(r) denotes a van der Waals (vdW) energy, and wherein thefunction is based on a correlation between the effective temperaturedrop ΔT_(coh)(r) and the vdW energy E^(vdw)(r).
 9. A computer-aidedsimulation method for a scanning Seebeck microscope (SSM) image, whereina computer calculates a local thermoelectric voltage for a position of avoltage probe in a material surface, to acquire the SSM imagecorresponding to the position, using the following equation:${V(r)} = {\int{{S\left( {r;r^{\prime}} \right)}{{\nabla{T\left( {r;r^{\prime}} \right)}} \cdot \frac{r^{\prime} - r}{{{r^{\prime} - r}}^{3}}}{^{3}r^{\prime}}}}$in which V(r) denotes the local thermoelectric voltage, S(r;r′) denotesa local Seebeck coefficient, ∇T(r;r′) denotes a temperature gradientradially weighted by a factor of 1/r², r denotes a distance measuredfrom a point voltage probe, and r′ denotes material internalcoordinates.
 10. A computer-aided simulation method for a scanningSeebeck microscope (SSM) image, wherein a computer calculates athermoelectric voltage based on a Seebeck coefficient and a change in atemperature between a probe and a surface of a material, thethermoelectric voltage being used to display an image of a predeterminedlocal region of the material.
 11. The computer-aided simulation methodof claim 10, wherein the Seebeck coefficient is calculated by thecomputer based on at least one of an electron charge, an absolutetemperature, a Fermi energy, and a Fermi-Dirac distribution function.12. The computer-aided simulation method of claim 10, wherein theSeebeck coefficient is calculated by the computer based on at least oneof an electrical conductivity, an electron transmission probability, anda local density of states (DOS).
 13. The computer-aided simulationmethod of claim 10, wherein the Seebeck coefficient comprises a uniquecharacteristic of the material.
 14. The computer-aided simulation methodof claim 10, wherein the change is calculated by the computer based onat least one of a thermal conductivity, a phonon transmissionprobability, and an interaction between the probe and the material. 15.The computer-aided simulation method of claim 10, wherein the materialcomprises graphene.
 16. The computer-aided simulation method of claim10, wherein the thermoelectric voltage is induced by a temperaturedifference between a first temperature of the probe and a secondtemperature of the material.